Cognitive functions

Background and  (hopefully)  alternative taxonomy

Author: Lisa Seeman

DRAFT 5/29/2014 For discussion only

List of Aims

• Have a consistent use of terms within our documents
• Have a basis /background for making tags that can be used in  meta data or functional accessibility approach
• Be a useful resource

Note: I have taken terms and concepts from across the work we are doing on disability and cognitive function. Where more then one term exists for what seems to be a very similar function I have chosen one term but brought the others for reference. I have also reviewed the Caroll taxonomy but it was focused on educational assessment, and sychometric-based models for human intelligence and was therefore not fully relevant (for example: knowledge categories). When I am quoting a Caroll category I have tried to put the mnemonic after the term such as (RG) or (I). (I also need to merge Jim's work.)

Here are the cognitive functions that I have identified so far. It is not complete and it is not yet in a taxonomy form.

Reasoning and executive functions

Executive functions (also known as cognitive control and supervisory attentional system) is an umbrella term for the management  of cognitive processes such as  reasoning and problem solving (goal focused reasoning) as described bellow. Executive function also includes:

• emotional control and self-monitoring
• shift ( also called task flexibility)
• initiation and
• planning/organization and
• execution

In making a decision or conclusion we may use:

• Fluid (logical) reasoning.
• Attitudes and experience from or guiding Crystallized intelligence.
• An Affective component involving a person’s emotions (such as fear) and identity (sense of self).
• Behavioral (or conative) component involving memory such as long term autobiographical memory.

Reasoning

Fluid reasoning is the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge [Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence] Fluid intelligence may involves both the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex.
Types of fluid reasoning are:

1. Deductive Reasoning (RG) ( sometimes called  General or Sequential or hypothetico- deductive reasoning). It is the ability to start with stated assertions (rules, premises, or  conditions) and to engage in one or more steps leading to a solution to a problem.
2. Inductive reasoning (Induction (I) Reasoning from specific cases or observations to general rules or broad generalizations. Often requires the ability to combine separate pieces of information in the formation of inferences, rules, hypotheses, or conclusions.
3. Mathematical intelligence  (also called Quantitative Reasoning (RQ)) depends on Ability to inductively (I) and/or deductively (RG) reason with concepts involving mathematical relations and properties.
4. Piagetian Reasoning (RP): reasoning via  seriation (organizing material into an orderly series that facilitates understanding of relationships between events), conservation (awareness that physical quantities do not change in amount when altered in appearance), and classification .

A related idea is Speed of Reasoning (RE): Speed or fluency in performing reasoning tasks   [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~itm/688/wk6/CHC%20Definitions.pdf]

Crystallized intelligence (sometimes called Comprehension- Knowledge) is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It does not equate to memory, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory. Crystallized intelligence is one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as demonstrated largely through one's vocabulary and general knowledge. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence</cite> Crystallized intelligence involves the storage and usage of long-term memories, such as by the hippocampus.
We have included the dependent aspects in the sections on memory and language [ http://www-personal.umich.edu/~itm/688/wk6/CHC%20Definitions.pdf]

Attention

Reasoning and executive functions require attention. Types of attention are:

• Selective attention refers to the ability to attend to some stimuli while disregarding others that are irrelevant to the task at hand. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK3885/]
• Divided attention tasks require the processing of two or more sources of information or the performance of two or more tasks at the same time (Divided attention has usually been associated with significant age-related declines in performance, particularly when tasks are complex.) [5]. The cost of dividing attention is assessed by comparing performance under dual task conditions to performance when the tasks are performed separately. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK3885/]
• Sustained attention refers to the ability to maintain concentration on a task over an extended period of time.   [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK3885/]

Abstraction

• Essentialism
• Object recognition - Abstraction is part of Visual comprehension
• Face recognition (seems to be a separate from on=objects)
• Facial patterns (such as an angry face)
• Linguistical abstractions (such as relation between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.)
• Quantities
• Numerical concepts
• Abstract context of time
• Spatial orientation,  directions  layout of things.
• Mechanical abstractions.
• Musical abstractions.
• Behavioral and social abstractions –
  • norms etc
  • social cues
  • other Behavioral:
    .

Memory

People talk about types of memories are often talking about different categories of types of memory.  Any memory based events can be described in all these categories. For example:  An event may cause an sensory experience to go into long term memory implicitly,. Here are the types I have identified:

Types – durations based: working , long term, short term, and possibly Intermediary
Types – context based: emotional, procedural, sensory (tactile, smell, Psychomotor  Kinestheti, Olfactory)   auditory, visual, visuo-spatial, spatial, musical  and prospective memory.
Types  - awareness level: implicit and explicit

Durations based

• Working memory,  involves mentally manipulating — is the system that actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind, where they can be manipulated. .[1]
  Baddeley and Hitch feel it is the executive and attention control of short-term memory, but others point out that long term memory can also be involved in working memory.
• Short-term memory (also called active or primary memory) typically lasts seconds – such as remembering the phone number while you find a pen and write it down. Sub types are Verbal, visual and spatial. four different units in short-term memory is probably average. Capacity of short-term memory is often called memory span,
• Long-term memory (also called reference memory, long-term storage and retrieval (Glr),TSR, Glm) he ability to store and consolidate new information in memory and later fl uently retrieve the stored information.  Broad retrieval ability (G) is a related idea

Context based

• Episodic memory (autobiographical – time, self, )
• Semantic memory (factual)
• Visual memory
• Visuo-spatia memory
• Spatial memory
• Musical memory 
• Auditory memory: Memory for sound patterns (UM),
• Procedural memory: Memory for the performance of particular types of action like walking.
• Prospective Memory: Much of what we have to remember in everyday life involves prospective memory — remembering to do things in the future, such as keep appointments, return a book to the library, or pay bills on time [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK3885/]
• Emotional memories: Can be both declarative and procedural memory processes

  Awareness based

• Implicit memory :(Can be called non-declarative memory ) Memory is built or used without conscious awareness. In contrast with...
• Explicit memory: (Can be called declarative memory ) the intentional use of memory such as remembering the time of an appointment or studying for an exam.

Also memories can be stored and recalled as Associative memory (MA), Meaningful memory (MM), Free-recall memory (M6),

Language

Speak, write, read or understand speech or language ,

Spoken languages

• Speech perception: sounds of language are heard, interpreted and understood This depends on:
• Auditory Discrimination (Note not L hearing, but the identification and differentiation of sounds also called General sound discrimination (U3),
• Temporal tracking (UK)
• Listening Ability (LS)
• Naming skills (N)
• Related memory such as Working Memory, auditory memory  - (Memory for sound patterns)
• Morphosyntax: T he system of the internal structure of words (morphology) and the way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences (syntax).
• Understanding figural language. Including a simile (a comparison of two things, such as  “His cheeks were like roses”, A metaphor, onomatopoeia (a word designed to be an imitation of a sound such as  “Bark! Bark!” ), personification ( attribution of a personal nature to inanimate objects) an oxymoron ( opposite or contradictory terms is used together for emphasis such as  “organized chaos” ) a paradox ,a Hyperbole (an extreme  exaggeration such as “ I was so upset I nearly died”) allusion or idiom(such as : You should keep your eye out for him.) and puns.
  Note: Spoken language also require inability to produce voice

Sign language

Sign language without spoken language probably requires a slightly different set of skills such as:

• Visual Recognition Skills
• Non-vocal Naming - Association of sign and concept
• Phoneme Processing  and Phonetic coding (PC)
• Related memory such as Working Memory, Visual memory, Memory for patterns
• Morphosyntax: T he system of the internal structure of words (morphology) and the way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences (syntax).
• Understanding figural language.

Literacy

Beyond basic language,  literacy typically requires:

• Visual Recognition (see below)
• Visual memory –(not effected in downs)
•  Phoneme Processing   and Phonetic coding (PC)
• Cross-modal Association Association of sign and concept

Note that many dyslexics achieve literacy without many of these functions or with impaired functioning

Perception

Visual recognition

• Object recognition
• Face recognition (seems to be a different process to object recognition [ Face and object recognition ((Alex Huk. (1999) "Object and Face Recognition: Lecture Notes." pp. 5]
• Pattern recognition

Other Perception

Auditory perception (see Speech perception above for further classifications), Motor, Tactile smell Psychomotor  Kinestheti( bodily position, weight, or movement) Olfactory  and sensory perception      

Speed

Processing speed effect all the functions above. See Caroll.
A related concept is fluency

Knowledge

• Knowledge of culture
• Base Language knowledge including:
• Lexical (UL)
• Jargon (subject mater)
• Web jargon and technology
• Web and technology usages and risks
• Metaphors and idioms
• Icons and symbols
• Mathematical knowledge
• Mechanical Knowledge (MK)
• Knowledge of  behaviors
• Design metaphor –look
• Design functions

Not (yet) fully addressed:

• Consciousness
• Identity
• Emotions (such as  fear) moods and motivation
• Libido  and Sexual function
• Creative thought
• Personality
• Judgment and self-monitoring
• Initiative
• Inhibition

Note that these are in our mandate – for example: Dementia with Lewy bodies affects the cerebrum where small round lumps of proteins build up and can cause fluctuations of consciousness as well as hallucinations, delusions (firmly held beliefs in things that are not real) and false ideas (such as paranoia).

Appendix 1:  Areas of the brain

• Reasoning and problem solving
• Initiative, inhibition and behavior
• Abstractions
• Attention
• Creative thought
• Some emotion
• Reflection
• Judgment
• Coordination of movements
• Generalized and mass movements
• Skilled movements and some motor skills
• Libido (sexual urges)

Occipital Lobe

• Vision
• Broca's Area Controls the facial neurons as well as the understanding of speech and language. It

Parietal Lobe

• Tactile sensation
• Appreciation of form through touch (stereognosis)
• Response to internal stimuli (proprioception)
• Sensory combination and comprehension
• Some language and reading functions
• Some visual functions

Temporal Lobe

• Some hearing
• Memory including Auditory memories and Visual memories
• Music
• Some behavior and emotions like fear
• Sense of identity
• Wernicke's Area- This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the auditory cortex. Fformulate or understand speech.

Limbic System

The limbic system contains glands which help relay emotions.

• Amygdala:The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear.
• Hippocampus: Used for explicit memory, specifically converting temporary memories into permanent memories which can be stored within the brain. The hippocampus also helps people analyze and remember spatial relationships, allowing for accurate movements.
• Hypothalamus: mood, thirst, hunger and temperature.
• Thalamus: attention span, sensing pain and tracks the sensations the body is feeling.

Corpus Callosum

• Communication between the left and right side of the brain

Cerebellum

• Balance and Posture
• Cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers

Braim Stem

• Motor and sensory pathway to body and face
• Vital centers: cardiac, respiratory, vasomotor

Pituitary Gland

• Hormonal body processes
• Physical maturation
• Growth (height and form)
• Sexual maturation
• Sexual functioning